by Deirdre Barrett and Stanley Krippner
Crick and Mitchison’s article on REM sleep as a random brain process involved off-line memory consolidation.[ii]It reinforced the view, already held by many neuroscientists, which dream content is basically without meaning. These writers based their thinking on the notion that the brain is a neural network that stores information during the day but nighttime stochastic noise is needed to “cleanse” it of unwanted information that would otherwise overload its capacity. However, later neural network stimulations tended to focus on the opposite problem of how such systems can overcome noise.[iii] Crick and Michelson pressed their idea so far as to assert that people should not recall their dreams because such attempts may retain patterns of thought that “are better forgotten.”
Contrary to these perspectives, many investigations of dream reports suppose the conclusion that dream narratives are not random and unpatterned but, in Alfred Adler’s terms, reflect a basic continuity with daily life.[iv] This point of view was developed later by Calvin Hall[v]among others. This continuity between dream reports and dreamers’ everyday life has been demonstrated not only for individuals[vi]but for cultures as well.[vii]
For example, Monroe, Nerlove, and Daniels[viii] studied three groups of male Nigerian students, finding that their dream content differed in relation to their tribal backgrounds. The Ibo culture has a value system favoring upward social mobility. Hausa culture does not support social mobility and individual achievement. The Yoruba culture takes an intermediate position. The Yoruba students’ dream reports contained more achievement themes than those of Hausa students, but less than those of Ibo students. This is exactly what one would predict if dreamlife reflects waking life.
Further contradicting the “garbage disposal theory of dreams” as dream researchers nicknamed Crick and Michelson’s assertions, there is enormous anecdotal evidence of dreams grappling with, and sometimes solving, major problems ranging from the structure of benzene to plots for prize-winning literature.[ix]More controlled problem-solving studies confirm the potential utility of dreams for this purpose.[x]Cultures that emphasize dreams as a source of guidance have even more examples of nocturnal guidance than dream-neglecting Western society. India’s greatest mathematician, Srinivasa Ramanujan, dreamed all of his mathematical “proofs” and Mahatma Gandhi said that his non-violent protest of British rule in India originated in a dream.[xi]The Arab world consists of various sub-cultures with this type of emphasis.
Arab Dream Traditions and their Role in Previous Arab-world Events
Secular Arabic traditions have focused on the potential of dreams to foretell the future. Sometimes the prediction is assumed to be literal and obvious, while on other occasions elaborate systems of symbolic translations were consulted such as the tenth century Oneirocriticon of Achmet[xii] in which severity or even connotation often changed with the dream’s interpretation. For example:
If someone dreams that he was decapitated in battle, he will receive beneficence from a powerful man... (p.129)
If he dreams that a front tooth fell out, the closer of his kin will die... (p. 108)
If he dreams that his fingernails were pulled out, the misfortune will be even more severe, and this points to a short life... (p. 113)
In Islam, many of the foundations of the Koranwere revealed to Muhammad in his ‘night journey’ which moderate branches of Islam construe as a divinely inspired dream. Muhammad ordered the practice of adhan, the daily call to prayer from the minarets and a central ritual of Islam to this day after one of his followers dreamed of it. The split of Islam into the conflicting factions of Sunni and Shiite was based partly on a dream of Mohammed, which the Sunnis used to justify their rights as his successors.
The autobiographies of Muslim rulers often contain extensive dream diaries and examples of decisions ostensibly based on dreams. When the Shah of Iran was deciding whether to seek a loan from Russia, he dreamed that a famous theological figure dressed in primitive Muslim garb approached the Shah and threw at his feet a sack containing gold and silver. The interpretation of this dream was that the Shah shouldn't make any new loans with unbelievers but should trust that fellow servants of the faith would restore his finances. Saddam Hussein reported dreaming that Allah told him to enter and take back Kuwait just before the first Gulf War.[xiii] Before the second Gulf War, he reported a dream that a snake came upon his path but he chopped off its head with a sword which he interpreted to mean Western invaders would be vanquished.[xiv]
Contemporary Islamic militant jihadists (Mullah Omar, Osama bin Laden, Atta, Reid etc.) routinely legitimate their calling through reference to dreams, and appear to interpret night dreams as being both inspirational and even strategic in their jihad.[xv][xvi]
Because of this emphasis on dreams as foretelling the future rather than arising from the past, many Arabs who are having PTSD nightmares of an event occurring each night experience even more anxiety over whether this will indeed occur again than dreamers in other cultures. In a study of PTSD nightmares in Kuwaiti survivors of the Iraqi invasion, the dreamers were extremely likely to view dreams about horrific encounters with the Iraqi army as meaning that the Iraqis were going to return rather than simply as being about the past.[xvii]
The positive side to this emphasis on dreams foretelling the future happens when people in the midst of turmoil dream of positive outcomes. These can be a source of optimism and inspiration in Arab culture, while in Western traditions they would be dismissed as "wish fulfillment" without the beneficial impact.
Dreams Occurring before the Arab Spring
In December 2010, the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi sparked protests that toppled the government of Tunesia (where Bouazizi lived) and spread across parts of North Africa and the Middle East. In her essay, “Is there an Arab Dream? Musings at a Difficult Time in the ‘Arab Spring,’” Sarah Eltantawi[xviii] wrote from Cairo:
The air is still thick with heat. It’s the kind that sends you, exhausted, to bed midday to submit to naps so deep you are sure your cells are regenerating at accelerated speed. Your lungs ache a bit with breathing. The dreams of these naps are excessively sharp with color; the subconscious’ deepest tresses excavated, as if by divine pitchfork. The kind of dreams that give a strong cup of coffee upon awaking a feeling of a lifeline. Being forced into these dreams by nature, I wonder if they can be made of use.
If Adler’s continuity hypothesis is valid, one would expect to see aspects of the so-called “Arab Spring” in dream reports of people in those regions. And, given dream beliefs in the region, one might expect them to be “made use” of for guidance, inspiration, and warnings by many of the dreamers. In 2013, we requested our contacts in that part of the world to collect dream reports that seemed, in some way, connected to the protest movements.
Some dreams in the collection we gathered presaged the events, often by several years. Akbar (a pseudonym, as are all dreamer’s names in this essay except those of public figures), an Algerian, reported a dream from November 2002, one that he claimed reflected the spread of revolution fervor some 8 or 9 years later.
I see a mountain. It is very high and wide, and it rises from the middle of a desert. I entered one of the caves in this mountain and found a medium-sized rock incursion in the earth. Then I moved that rock aside. Once I did this, huge amounts of oil came out of the slit. It poured onto the desert and spread wide until it became a river.
One could make the case that the spreading oil is a metaphor for the way that protests appeared in several countries following Bouazizi’s suicide. However, this is a post-hoc interpretation; more likely the flowing oil mirrored the way that newly discovered oil behaves once discovered.
A more likely premonitory dream was reported by Fawzia in July 2013, an Egyptian, before Mohamed Morsi, the legitimately elected president, had been deposed in an army coup.
I am looking at Morsi and am surprised because he is dressed in tattered rags. He is the president, so why is he dressed so shabbily?
Fawzia recalled another dream a few nights later.
I see Morsi in the presidential palace. He is wearing a delicately colored suit. A military officer is asking him to go outside the palace to see the large crowd of his supporters.
Both dreams occurred very shortly before the coup. The first dream may have reflected the rumors about the army’s plan to seize power, something that Fawzia, a backer of Morsi, did not want to occur. Her second dream may have reflected her wish that Morsi remain in power. This might be an example of Freud’s “wish fulfillment,” something he thought characterized most dreams, but a phenomenon that backers of the continuity hypothesis relegate to a minority of dream reports. A very interesting variation on a wish fulfillment dream occurred in this dream of a young woman in Egypt just before the Arab Spring:
I am observing a group of women who are parading for their rights. I am not sure what country this is in. There must be several hundred women protesting the government repression. They win their battle but it is short lived. There is a new government that gives the women their rights. But soon another government comes in that abolishes the rights, and the women seem to be right back where they started from. My mood is one of disappointment.
In a way, this parallels the government overthrow and then the military coup ousting the new regime. However, this woman’s dreamed revolution was more the one she would have liked to see. The Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood was not known for their sympathy for women's rights, and the military coup was associated with suppression of women's rights. But it is still a remarkable dream in many ways.
Majda, a young woman of the United Arab Emirates had a sober premonition of how events might go. As events were beginning to unfold in 2011, she dreamed:
I am outside of Dubai in a desert area, and look back at the skyscrapers. I think that I am lucky to be in a stable situation because as I look into the distance I see a sandstorm coming. I know it will not hit my country but I feel badly about the people who will be hurt by it. When I wake up I am sad, which is an unusual feelings for me upon awakening.
The metaphor of a sandstorm which her unconscious offered and her resulting sadness are much closer to how many of the participants might consciously view the events now than they were at the time of this dream.
An Egyptian journalist sent us his translations of three dreams that were circulated after the June 30 coup. The alleged dreamer was Abd El Fatah El Sisi, the Egyptian Minister of Defence who toppled Mohammed Morsi. These dreams were circulated by the Muslim Brotherhood in an attempt to portray El Sisi as a megalomaniac who thought that his dreams predicted the future. These dreams came from an old audio interview with El Sisi broadcast by Qatari station al Jazeera, hence they are probably authentically something El Sisi was trying to promote in the initial interview but was asking after the coup. El Sisi observed, in the interview:
I have had many dreams that came true, including these dreams from 35 years ago. I am brandishing a red word in which the religious slogan, “There is no God but Allah” was inscribed. I was wearing a large watch decorated by a very big star. The watch was the Omega brand and people kept asking me, “Why are you, not anybody else, wearing this magnificent watch?” I say to them, “This watch was made to be mine, and its name is Omega means “universality.” And that word is mine too.. In the second dream, I hear somebody say to me, “We will give you something very precious, something that nobody else has ever had.” And in the third dream the late President Anwar Sadat is saying to me, “I already knew that you would be Egypt’s next president.” I replied, “Me too.”
The first dream is quite general, and the word “Omega” is given a strange meaning, even in translation, since “Omega” is the last letter of the Greek alphabet and in the Western world is generally thought to connote finality. The final two dreams are both more recent and more specific. If El Sisi was giving an honest report, they do seem to presage actual events. However, the use of these dreams to discredit El Sisi is as provocative as the dreams themselves as it displays the Muslim belief that dreams can be premonitory. The newspaper article was meant to expose El Sisi as a self-promoter who used these dreams to enhance his own reputation.
Islamic militants indeed announced supposed premonitory dream content during the events of the Arab Spring to legitimate their positions. In a 2011 videotape produced in Syria, titled “Dream (glad tidings) of the killing of the killer/criminal/illegal Bashar at the hands of his associates,”[xix]Sheikh Mohammed Aljamal and Sheikh Hassan Al-Hussein describe dreams of others which presaged Arab Spring events which had already happened such as the killing of Muammar Qaddafi in Libya and the imprisonment of Hussnei Mubarak. They use the term "Ro'aa رُؤى" which literally means vision, but implies a divinely-inspired dream when it refers to the experience of an ordinary believer, as only prophets are assumed to have waking visions. Then Aljamal and Al-Hussein describe dreams which they imply predict the outcome of the Syrian Civil War which was in its early stages at the time. Their first example is:
This dream came before the events in Tunis. One of the good people. . . saw a group gather over a lion and they ate it. And this dream was a prophecy of the falling of the regime and the humiliation of its members.
Their interpretation hinges on the fact that the name Assad means ‘lion’ in Arabic. Indeed, in the pun-like manner of dreams which Freud dubbed “visual representation,” this image could be a rather obvious metaphor for the fall or death of Syrian President Bashar Assad. In an ironic aside, however, two years after the video was made and just as this book was going to press, major newspapers around the world flashed the headline: “Starving rebels eat lion from a Damascus zoo,”[xx]accompanied by graphic photos and video of men in the suburb Al-Ghouta butchering the unfortunate animal--eerily reminiscent of the dream account. Al-Ghouta was one of the areas hit by chemical gas attacks, and papers reported that Syrian imams had issued a fatwa that allows people living in those areas to eat meats that are normally forbidden under Islamic law, including dogs, cats and donkeys.
Aljamal and Al-Hussein’s next three examples are safer from alternative interpretations as more obvious representations of the triumph of the rebels:
The second dream is that somebody saw the flag of Syria was being placed in a coffin.
One of the imams in Lebanon narrated to me a dream that involved Syria with its houses’ doors lying open.
Another good man of Lebanon, when remembering God Almighty, was taken into sleep. When he woke up he said: “Look forward in anticipation, for I have seen the people of Syria rejoicing happily and inviting us to have breakfast feasts over there during Ramadan.”
Their last example is the most literal:
A man I consider from the good people, and he’s from Syria, narrated to me a dream that Bashar Al-Assad was killed by people around him close to him--people he trusts.
Aljamal and Al-Hussein assure listeners that these dreams mean that “Bashar will be killed by the hands of his own associates as per Sheikh-ul-Islam’s dream …. The victory is near . . . be patient. The Prophet said . . . near the [end] time, the dreams of true believers will not lie.” So far, this seems to be wishful thinking--whether by the original dreamers or by the imams in their cherry-picking of dreams. The only accurate prediction so far is the unfortunate lion; two years after the video was made, Assad still hangs onto power.
Dreams Occurring during the Arab Spring
Other dreams are contemporaneous with political events--the unconscious mind’s representation of what the waking self is witnessing. In 2011, an Indian student, Nakul, was in Cairo during the uprisings leading to the demise of the Mubarak regime when he had the following dream:
I am in a dark house that is completely unfamiliar to me. Outside there are camels that seem to be searching for me. I am terrified because I do not know how to fight camels. But I do know that they can go a long time without water so they will keep looking indefinitely. One of the camels is unusually large and savage looking. But it is very dark inside and outside, so I am able to elude them. I wake up terrified.
This young man seems to be caught up in events beyond his control, with hostile forces that are searching to destroy anyone not like themselves (in ideology, perhaps) and so the hostility is not personal. Because there is so much confusion, he is able to escape them, at least at the time he had the dream. He did return to India safely.
In 2013, Azzam, an Egyptian, reported a dream in which “an Egyptian general who had been sacked by Morsi was chasing me into a building. Canisters were being fired at him as well as at other protestors, with tear gas being emitted from small windows.” The dreamer was a supporter of Morsi who had been deposed before he had this dream. This dream may have reflected his anxiety about the military leaders who could well have tracked down and imprisoned all supporters of the former president.
Once Morsi had been deposed, the event was reflected in dreams of his Egyptian supporters and opponents. One supporter, Areed, reported a dream that he recalled in July 2013:
I dreamed that Morsi, who had been ousted by the military in June, was under detention. In this dream, I am sitting around a television set with members of his family. One of his sons attacks me verbally, even though I supported his father. Afterwards he tries to console me and apologizes. The whole family apologizes. Although I feel satisfied and tell them so, they keep apologizing. And then they stop.
This dream might reflect Areed’s disappointment with the fate of Morsi. He might have thought that some of Morsi’s actions were responsible for his loss of power, and the dream indicates the dreamer’s hope that Morsi will recognize the mistakes that he made. The family members are ambivalent about recognizing the situation but finally take some responsibility by apologizing to the dreamer and, quite likely, the other supporters who felt let down.
Ragab Ez El Deen--another Egyptian, and in this case a researcher in political science who wanted his real name included, also interjected himself into contemporary events during the Arab Spring.
I am being chased by Tantawy, a military commander who headed the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF) which took over power during the transition after the Mubarak regime collapsed.. He is chasing me from house to house. I wondered how Tantwi could be so earnest in chasing me although he is such an old man. I made him believe that I have holed in a house. He stormed such house. A mob caught him when he tried to go out of the house.
In this dream, El Deen may fear that his political sentiments may put him at risk. However, there are many people who agree with him and he gets out of harm’s way. This dream could well reflect the political realities of Egypt in which shifting power structures endanger people whose allegiances differ from the group in control at any given time.
In Jordan, where King Abdullah II was responding to protests by replacing unpopular prime ministers and altering laws, a young woman, Aini, viewed the Arab Spring much more positively. In August 2012, a month after the major protests had replaced officials and a month before demonstrations over fuel prices persuaded the King to drop the price, Aini reported:
My dream started with me climbing a red mountain with someone (a distorted imp-like someone, come to think of it), and when he couldn't climb anymore he said he was going back down, and jumped all the way down from our height to the bottom. Being near the top, I struggled to the peak. But to my dismay, there was nowhere to go, so I decided to do the same as him and jump down.
Then, as I was waking up, I had a half-dream, half-daydream. I thought what if I hadn't jumped down the way I came from, but had dived over the cliff on the other side? So I did. I jumped from the cliff. Then all of a sudden I was swimming in a clear lake, with fishes underwater, complete with corals reefs. I was swimming peacefully when all of a sudden a huge shark came, probably a great white. I was wondering if I should swim for the shore, when it started to come for me. But it kept missing, and really I wasn't afraid at all. I realized that someone, or something, invisible was protecting me. A strong and reliable entity. The shark darted for me one last time, and annoyed by its persistence (that was the feeling I got), the entity took it and smashed it down, one side then the other, like a pancake.
Aini’s dream repeatedly introduced danger--the cliff, the shark. And repeatedly there was some magic entity helping her, but she also gained in efficacy herself. This seemed to reflect the nature of the protest process in Jordan: certainly scary at times, as the police stood by prepared to move in if demonstrations got too intense. But eventually, as with the shark, Aini learned she didn’t need to be too afraid and could assert herself. No doubt the dream contains many other layers of personal meaning for a young woman struggling with becoming an adult and being a woman in male-dominated world, but her role as protestor and citizen of a country engaged in change seems to be a potent part of the story.
Madhia, a teenager from Afghanistan, told our informant that, in her opinion, the Arab Spring had redefined the entire Arab culture. She continued, “Entire populations broke the silence and openly criticized the then-current state of affairs. Even in countries like Syria, where dissent is viciously marginalized, protesters continue to call for an end to state mandated oppression.” Madhia had a dream in which a voice was signing about the Arab Spring. She recalled what she could and recast the song, which she called “Dream with Me.” This translation was done by our informant.
Dream with me.
Tomorrow’s coming,
And if it doesn’t come
We will bring it ourselves.
All of our steps will lead us to our dream,
No matter how many times we fall.
We can always get up.
We can break through the darkness.
We can turn our night into a thousand days.
Dreams after the Arab Spring
The hope expressed in Madhia’s song did not last. The expected “Democratic Domino” failed to materialize. Long-time dictators were deposed in Egypt and Libya, but the governments that followed were not paragons of democracy or even of stability. An uprising in Yemen failed to take hold, and protests in other countries were repressed or simply fizzled out. Syria has been locked in a bitter civil war ever since. Some commentators[xxi] have complained that the “Arab Spring” term was the invention of Western journalists. The term is an allusion to the European revolutions of 1848, which are sometimes collectively referred to as the "Springtime of the People", and to the “Prague Spring” of 1968. These analogies to Western-style democratic revolutions may never have reflected the realities of events in the countries at the epicenter of the protests.
Amir, a high school student living in the occupied West Bank who experienced it’s turnmoil all of his life, now watches Syria’s civil war just over the border. He hears the news daily and encounters acquaintances who’ve been over the border and directly involved, but Amir has played no role in Syria. However, he finds his dream tumbling him into the battle without warning in the midst of normal teenage activities:
I was in my Jericho house, and fixed something to eat . . .and Skyped a bit and solved some chemistry questions . . . Then, I took out a rifle for my duties as a Lieutenant in the Arab Syrian Army and went on a find-and-kill mission for Free Syrian Army (FSA) members in Jericho.... I saw some FSA members sneaking to the left...I shot them down, 2 men... There was no real recoil, or any sense of shooting, nor was there blood or screams or sounds...I just aimed and they were lying dead on the ground next... I saw one of my men get shot in the head...
So he eats, chats with friends, and then war rages--a reality in that part of the Middle East that’s only gotten more exaggerated for anyone near the Syrian border. The observation that the dream lacked gritty, real-life details as people suddenly lay dead could result from the dreamer’s experiences playing video-games, not military service; but it also could be dissociation developed through a waking lifetime of witnessed violence. A couple weeks later, Amir had a dream--the only one in our sample to overtly compare Arab Spring to European struggles--but emphasizing their darkest resemblance:
I was a soldier in a militia, the black guardians, and our job was to cover the Arab Syrian Army by shooting the Free Syrian Army members... My fellow members were shooting bulls-eyes in the Free army's heads....I, on the other hand missed all my shots. Then I hit a fellow Arab Syrian Soldier...friendly fire. I saw the soldier collapse with a small burst of blood, through the scope of my sniper. I felt deep shame...not only am I failing in killing the enemy, but I am killing our own men. A bullet hit me, in the leg. I collapse.... The enemy comes....They raise me and place me in an "ambulance." It was a donkey driven cart, with the cart being fenced with wooden fence. Like a large baby's cradle... I lay motionless...
Then in the transitionless way that can only happen in dreams:
I was a French soldier injured in a battle in the early 1800s between the French and the British... I was thrown into the cart again, and dragged away.... I only showed agony and despair once we were negotiating the curb... as I was taken into the unknown....
Next thing I know, I am an Orc and loosing to a battle against the centaur demigod as the last Orc Grunt. I try diplomacy, and slash my head goes off...I hear a voice saying “Our hero has been slain,” just like the video-game I was playing right before I fell asleep.
Conflict in his own country, war in Syria, ancient battles from history books, and an intergalactic video-game swirl in a mix of permanent war. Awake, Amir does view the FSA negatively, but he’s not an admirer of the SAA. He believes the current regime may be a slightly more stable force from the perspective of the Palestinian refugee camps, but says “no side is an angel and you don’t really support a side in that sort of a free for all.” The dream’s imagery reflects that: though Amir is cast on a particular side in each scene, both sides always behave equally aggressively. And it’s a SAA member he ends up shooting. The general message seems to be all wars are hell. For Amir, the battles around him have disrupted his ability to enjoy childhood play and teenage exploration without violence and survival issues intruding.
Jasmine, who lives in Morocco, reported a gentler if perhaps equally sad dream:
I am watching a scene in the desert. Some lovely flowers were blooming. Their colors are remarkable, like something I had not seen in my waking life. But the colors begin to fade and the plants begin to die. Soon there is nothing there but sand, shifting sand.
This dream could well be a metaphor for the dashed hopes of the Arab Spring. Jasmine lives in a country barely touched by either the successes or failures of the protests. As a result, she can distance herself from these events and give a reaction that does not put her in the middle of the action, as was the case with the Egyptian and Palestinian/Syrian border dreamers.
Naval, a man viewing these events from India has an equally removed perspective and his dreams perhaps incorporate more sense of the partial successes, partial failures and continuing nature of the story:
I am watching a herd of horses running over a desert. They are all very strong and very powerful. They seem to be Arabian horses and I think that they represent various countries in the region. Suddenly, the horses go off in their own direction and there is no more unity. The horses do not turn against each other; they simply run off toward different parts of the desert. I feel sad that they could not longer stay the common course.
Conclusion
Our review of Arab Spring dreams supports Alfred Adler's thesis of continuity between dream life and waking life. Each of the dream reports we have cited is a reflection of actual events before, during, or after that period of history and/or the dreamer's reaction to those events. Our review also mirrors many Arabic traditions regarding dreams, suggesting that future historians include reported dreams as an important supplement to their descriptions of the social and political movements, and their sequels, that they study. These occurrences would be more thoroughly understood if dream reports were added to first-person interviews, post-hoc ruminations, media presentations, and other customary data sources. Without paying attention to unconscious dynamics, a historical record of critical world and region events is lacking layers of it’s psychological causation and meaning.
[i] We would like to thank DreamsCloud.com and Dr. Iain Edgar for their help in locating relevant dreams.
[ii]Crick, Francis, and Graeme Mitchison. "The function of dream sleep." Nature 304, no. 5922 (1983): 111-114.
[iii]White, Olivia L., Daniel D. Lee, and Haim Sompolinsky. "Short-term memory in orthogonal neural networks." arXiv preprint cond-mat/0402452 (2004).
[v]Hall, Calvin, S., and Robert Van de Castle (1966). The content analysis of dreams. East Norwalk, CT, US: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
[vi]Domhoff, G. William. The scientific study of dreams: Neural networks, cognitive development, and content analysis. American Psychological Association, 2003.
[vii]Prasad, B. "Content analysis of dreams of Indian and American college students: A cultural comparison." Journal of Indian Psychology (1982).
[viii]Monroe, R.L., Nerlove, S., and R. Daniels. “Effects of population density on food concerns in three East African societies.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 10, (1969): 161-171.
[ix] Barrett, D. (2001). The committee of sleep: How artists, scientists, and athletes use dreams for creative problem-solving–and how you can too. Crown/Random House.
[x]Barrett, Deirdre. "The" committee of sleep": A study of dream incubation for problem solving." Dreaming, 3, no. 2 (1993): 115.
[xii]Oberhelman, S. M. (Ed.). (1991). The Oneirocriticon of Achmet: a medieval Greek and Arabic treatise on the interpretation of dreams. Texas Tech University Press.
[xv]Washington Post (2001). Text: Bin Laden Discusses Attacks on Tape, Dec. 13.
[xvi]Edgar, Iain. R. “The Dream Will Tell: Militant Muslim Dreaming in the Context of Traditional and Contemporary Islamic Dream Theory and Practice.” Dreaming, 1, no. 41 (2004): 21.
[xvii]Barrett, Deirdre and Behbehani, Jaffar (2003). Post-Traumatic Nightmares in Kuwait Following the Iraqi Invasion. In Krippner, Stanley, and Teresa M. McIntyre, eds. The psychological impact of war trauma on civilians: An international perspective. Greenwood Publishing Group, 135.
[xviii] Eltantawi, Sarah (2012). “Is there an Arab Dream? Musings at a Difficult Time in the ‘Arab Spring,’“ Muftah: Free and Open Debate from Morocco to Pakistan, Oct. 31 http://muftah.org/is-there-an-arab-dream-thoughts-from-a-difficult-moment-in-the-arab-spring/Retrieved 11/20/13.
[xix]Bastawy, Mahmoud (2011). Dream (glad tidings) of the killing of the killer/criminal/illegal Bashar by the hands of his [own] associates. YouTube http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=exgJAKIkaIk&feature=related Retrieved 11/20/13.
[xx]The Times “Starving rebels eat lion from a Damascus zoo” Nov 29, 2013 http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/world/middleeast/article3935102.eceRetrieved Nov 30th, 2013.
[xxi]Alhassen Maytha (2012). Please Reconsider the Term "Arab Spring" Huffington Post, Feb. 10 http://www.huffingtonpost.com/maytha-alhassen/please-reconsider-arab-sp_b_1268971.html Retrieved 11/20/13.
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The research reflected in this chapter was supported by the Saybrook University Chair for the Study of Consciousness.
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